AP Human Geography flashcards
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Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
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Topic 1.1 · Which one fitsA hypothetical county prints one map with its towns, highways and rivers, and another with each township shaded by the share of residents over 65. Which is the reference map and which is the thematic map?
The first is the reference map: it shows where places and features are. The second is the thematic map: it shows how one topic, age, varies from place to place on a base of township lines.
Review: 1.1 Introduction to Maps
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Topic 1.1 · Which one fitsA clinic is 12 km from a school in a straight line, but a bus takes 25 minutes to cover the trip. Which measure is absolute distance and which is relative distance?
The 12 km is absolute distance, measured in a standard unit. The 25 minutes is relative distance, because it measures the separation in terms that matter to the traveler.
Review: 1.1 Introduction to Maps
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Topic 1.2 · Which one fitsA student visits a hypothetical town market and counts how many stalls sell vegetables, writing the numbers in a notebook. What kind of data is this?
Field data: information gathered firsthand, in the place being studied, by an individual.
Review: 1.2 Geographic Data
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Topic 1.2 · Which one fitsA hypothetical planning office stores road, river and school-district data as separate layers and overlays them to find sites near a river but far from a road. Which geospatial technology is it using?
A geographic information system (GIS), which stores spatial data in layers and lets a user combine and analyze them.
Review: 1.2 Geographic Data
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Topic 1.3 · Say it in contextA hypothetical city compares satellite images of its edge taken in two different years. What can the comparison show that a single image cannot?
How the surface changed between the dates, such as farmland replaced by buildings. One image only shows what is on the surface at one moment.
Review: 1.3 The Power of Geographic Data
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Topic 1.3 · Spot the mistakeA regional government divides emergency aid using a census taken years ago, though many people have since moved. Why can its decision be wrong?
A decision is only as good as its data. An old count or an undercount sends aid by a picture of the region that no longer matches where people live.
Review: 1.3 The Power of Geographic Data
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Topic 1.4 · Which one fitsHypothetical Town T is at 10 degrees north, 20 degrees east on a hypothetical map. A visitor says it is two hours' drive east of the capital. Which statement gives absolute location and which gives relative location?
The coordinates give absolute location, a fixed position on a grid. The two hours east of the capital gives relative location, which changes if the road or the connections change.
Review: 1.4 Spatial Concepts
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Topic 1.4 · Which one fitsA new rail line cuts the trip between two hypothetical cities from five hours to one, and trade between them jumps. Which spatial concept describes the shrinking of the time and cost of the link?
Time-space compression: faster, cheaper links make distant places act closer to each other.
Review: 1.4 Spatial Concepts
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Topic 1.5 · Say it in contextA hypothetical fishing community catches fish faster than the fish population can replace itself. Is the fishery a nonrenewable resource, and is the use sustainable?
Fish are renewable, but the use is not sustainable. A renewable resource can still run out where people use it faster than nature renews it.
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Topic 1.5 · Which one fitsA scholar claims that a hot, dry climate decides what kind of society a people will build. A second scholar says the climate sets limits, and the people choose among them. Which is the possibilist?
The second. Possibilism holds that the environment sets limits and offers options while culture, technology and choices decide. Claiming the environment decides is environmental determinism.
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Topic 1.6 · Which one fitsA study covers the whole of one hypothetical country. At which scale of analysis is it working?
The national scale: one country as a whole.
Review: 1.6 Scales of Analysis
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Topic 1.6 · Work it outHypothetical District A has 400 residents and 100 are renters. District B has 1,600 residents and 1,400 are renters. What share of the combined area rents, and why is it not the average of 25% and 87.5%?
Total renters 1,500 divided by total residents 2,000 gives 75%. The average of the parts would be 56.25%, which ignores how many people live in each district.
Review: 1.6 Scales of Analysis
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Topic 1.7 · Which one fitsA geographer maps the area where people speak one language, and another maps the area that depends on one city's stores and jobs. Which is the formal region and which the functional region?
The language area is a formal region, defined by a shared characteristic. The area linked to one city by activity is a functional region, with that city as its node.
Review: 1.7 Regional Analysis
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Topic 1.7 · Say it in contextResidents of a hypothetical valley call their area by an informal name that is on no official map. What type of region is it?
A perceptual or vernacular region, defined by people's shared sense of a place.
Review: 1.7 Regional Analysis
Unit 2: Population and Migration Patterns and Processes
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Topic 2.1 · Work it outA hypothetical country has 3,000,000 people on 1,000 square kilometers of land, and 300 square kilometers are arable. What are its arithmetic and physiological densities?
Arithmetic density is 3,000,000 divided by 1,000, or 3,000 people per square kilometer. Physiological density divides by the arable land: 3,000,000 divided by 300, or 10,000 people per square kilometer of arable land.
Review: 2.1 Population Distribution
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Topic 2.1 · Say it in contextWhy might physical factors explain where people live at the global scale but not inside one city?
At the global scale climate, landforms and water explain the pattern. Inside a city the same climate applies everywhere, so human factors such as where jobs are located explain it.
Review: 2.1 Population Distribution
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Topic 2.2 · Say it in contextA hypothetical rural county has few people spread across a large area. Why does it cost more per person to give them medical care?
Sparse places cost more per person to serve, and people must travel far for care. Dense places can place hospitals and services close to most people.
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Topic 2.2 · Which one fitsWhich idea names the largest population an area can support over time without damaging its environment, and how can a change in farming technology affect it?
Carrying capacity. It is not fixed: better technology or different land use can change how many people the area can support.
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Topic 2.3 · Which one fitsWhich kind of graph shows a population by age group and sex as two back-to-back bar charts?
A population pyramid.
Review: 2.3 Population Composition
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Topic 2.3 · Say it in contextA hypothetical town has a very wide base of young children on its population pyramid. What should its school board plan for?
Demand for schools will be high now and, as that group ages up the pyramid, demand for jobs, housing and health care will follow.
Review: 2.3 Population Composition
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Topic 2.4 · Work it outA hypothetical country has a crude birth rate of 30 and a crude death rate of 10 per 1,000, with no migration. What is its rate of natural increase, and its doubling time?
The rate of natural increase is 30 minus 10 = 20 per 1,000, which is 2%. Doubling time is 70 divided by 2 = 35 years.
Review: 2.4 Population Dynamics
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Topic 2.4 · Work it outIn a hypothetical year a region has 5,000 births, 3,000 deaths, 2,000 immigrants and 1,500 emigrants. By how many people does it grow?
Natural increase is 5,000 minus 3,000 = 2,000. Net migration is 2,000 minus 1,500 = 500. The population grows by 2,500.
Review: 2.4 Population Dynamics
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Topic 2.5 · Which one fitsIn which stage of the demographic transition model does the death rate fall while the birth rate stays high, so that growth is fastest?
Stage 2.
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Topic 2.5 · Say it in contextAs clean water and vaccines spread through a hypothetical country, what happens to its main causes of death?
Deaths shift from infectious diseases to chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. This is the epidemiological transition, and people live longer.
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Topic 2.6 · Say it in contextMalthus argued that population grows faster than food. Which kind of growth did he assign to each?
Population grows geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8) and food grows arithmetically (1, 2, 3, 4), so population eventually outruns the food supply.
Review: 2.6 Malthusian Theory
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Topic 2.6 · Which one fitsA hypothetical society puts off marriage so families stay small. In Malthus's theory, is that a positive check or a preventive check?
A preventive check: a choice that holds population down by lowering the birth rate. Famine, disease and war are positive checks, which raise the death rate.
Review: 2.6 Malthusian Theory
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Topic 2.7 · Which one fitsA hypothetical country with fertility below replacement level pays families for each child and offers paid parental leave. What kind of policy is this?
A pronatalist policy, which encourages births.
Review: 2.7 Population Policies
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Topic 2.7 · Say it in contextA hypothetical country lowers its fertility rate to the replacement level, but its population keeps growing for decades. What explains this?
Population momentum: growth continues because a large young age group is still moving into the childbearing years after the fertility rate has changed.
Review: 2.7 Population Policies
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Topic 2.8 · Say it in contextWhy does paid work for women tend to lower the number of children in a family?
Each extra child costs more in lost wages, which is a higher opportunity cost, and schooling and work also delay marriage and first births.
Review: 2.8 Women and Demographic Change
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Topic 2.8 · Spot the mistakeA student says Ravenstein found that most migrants move long distances. What did he actually find?
Most migrants move short distances. Ravenstein also found that women moved more often than men over short distances, and that young adults moved most often.
Review: 2.8 Women and Demographic Change
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Topic 2.9 · Work it outA hypothetical country has 20 million people under 15, 60 million aged 15 to 64, and 15 million aged 65 and older. What are its dependency ratio and old-age dependency ratio per 100?
The dependency ratio is (20 + 15) divided by 60 times 100, about 58. The old-age dependency ratio is 15 divided by 60 times 100, which is 25.
Review: 2.9 Aging Populations
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Topic 2.9 · Say it in contextWhy does the median age of a hypothetical country rise when birth rates fall and people live longer?
Each new group of children is smaller, and falling death rates at older ages add people at the top, so the middle of the age distribution moves up.
Review: 2.9 Aging Populations
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Topic 2.10 · Which one fitsA farmer leaves a hypothetical region after a long drought and moves to a city with factory jobs. Which is the push factor and which is the pull factor?
The drought is the push factor, a condition at the origin that drives people away. The factory jobs are the pull factor, a condition at the destination that draws people in.
Review: 2.10 Causes of Migration
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Topic 2.10 · Which one fitsA migrant heading for a distant city finds jobs and housing in a nearer town and settles there. What does the nearer town represent?
An intervening opportunity: a nearer place that offers what the migrant wants, so the move stops there.
Review: 2.10 Causes of Migration
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Topic 2.11 · Which one fitsA woman flees war and has not crossed her country's border. Which term describes her, and how does it differ from a refugee?
She is an internally displaced person. A refugee has crossed an international border and has been recognized as needing protection.
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Topic 2.11 · Which one fitsA family moves to a city because relatives from their village moved there first and helped them find housing. Which pattern of voluntary migration is this?
Chain migration: people follow relatives or neighbors who moved earlier to the same destination.
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Topic 2.12 · Say it in contextHow can emigration of skilled doctors hurt a hypothetical origin country while migrants' payments home help it?
The origin loses educated workers, which is brain drain. The money migrants send home, called remittances, brings income to families there.
Review: 2.12 Effects of Migration
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Topic 2.12 · Which one fitsMigrants carry their food, language and religion to a hypothetical destination, and a district forms where most shops and places of worship come from their homeland. What is this district called?
An ethnic enclave.
Review: 2.12 Effects of Migration
Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes
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Topic 3.1 · Spot the mistakeA student says one person's habit of drinking tea at noon is a culture trait. Why is that wrong?
Culture belongs to a group and is learned from other people. One person's habit is not culture, though a practice the group shares and passes on is.
Review: 3.1 Introduction to Culture
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Topic 3.1 · Which one fitsA visitor calls a hypothetical society's mealtime customs strange and inferior to her own. A second visitor tries to understand the same customs in the society's own context. Which is ethnocentric?
The first visitor, who judges another culture by her own standards. The second practices cultural relativism.
Review: 3.1 Introduction to Culture
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Topic 3.2 · Say it in contextA hypothetical city has a district where signs are in a language few outside it read, with places of worship and shops of one group. What does this show about the cultural landscape?
The visible landscape records the culture of the people who shaped it, through language on signs, places of worship and land use. It marks an ethnic neighborhood.
Review: 3.2 Cultural Landscapes
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Topic 3.2 · Which one fitsA hypothetical town has buildings from three different groups that occupied it in turn, with the earlier layers still visible. Which idea describes this?
Sequent occupance: each group that occupies a place adds a layer, and earlier layers often stay visible.
Review: 3.2 Cultural Landscapes
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Topic 3.3 · Which one fitsA hypothetical state has one language group concentrated in a single region that wants more self-rule. Is that group a centripetal or a centrifugal force?
A centrifugal force, because a different language or ethnicity concentrated in one region can divide a state. A trait shared across the whole state is centripetal.
Review: 3.3 Cultural Patterns
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Topic 3.3 · Which one fitsResidents of a hypothetical neighborhood turn a vacant lot into a park decorated with murals that show their heritage. What is this process called?
Placemaking: people shaping a public space on purpose so it reflects their community's identity and values.
Review: 3.3 Cultural Patterns
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Topic 3.4 · Which one fitsA hypothetical dance style spreads when migrants from its hearth settle in a distant country. No places in between adopt it. Which type of diffusion is this?
Relocation diffusion, which travels with people who move to a new place.
Review: 3.4 Types of Diffusion
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Topic 3.4 · Which one fitsA trend begins in the largest city of a hypothetical country, spreads to the next largest cities, and only later reaches small towns. Which type of diffusion is this?
Hierarchical diffusion: the trait moves from the largest or most important places down to smaller ones.
Review: 3.4 Types of Diffusion
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Topic 3.5 · Say it in contextWhy did colonial rule leave a language spoken in a former colony long after independence?
Colonial and imperial rule spread the rulers' languages, religions and laws, and many of those patterns outlast independence.
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Topic 3.5 · Which one fitsTraders on a hypothetical coast with no shared language build a simplified one. Years later children learn it as their first language. What are the two stages called?
The simplified language is a pidgin. Once it becomes a community's first language it is a creole.
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Topic 3.6 · Say it in contextHow do communication technologies change cultural diffusion?
They make interaction between distant places faster and more frequent, which is time-space convergence, so practices spread more quickly.
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Topic 3.6 · Which one fitsTwo hypothetical cultures in constant contact begin to share clothing, music and food. A third group in the same city deliberately holds itself apart. Which process describes each?
The first two show cultural convergence, growing more alike. The third shows cultural divergence, growing or staying distinct.
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Topic 3.7 · Which one fitsIn the AP course, which kind of religion seeks to appeal to people of every background, and which is tied mainly to one people and the land of its hearth?
Universalizing religions appeal to everyone. Ethnic religions are tied mainly to one people. The course names Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Sikhism as universalizing, and Hinduism and Judaism as ethnic.
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Topic 3.7 · Say it in contextA river in a hypothetical country bears a name from a language nobody there speaks anymore. What does the place name show?
A toponym can keep a language on the map after people stop speaking it, so the name is evidence that an earlier group spoke that language there.
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Topic 3.8 · Which one fitsImmigrants in a hypothetical country adopt the local language and clothing but keep their own holidays and faith. Is this acculturation or assimilation?
Acculturation: the group adopts new traits while keeping its own culture. In assimilation its own culture is gone.
Review: 3.8 Effects of Diffusion
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Topic 3.8 · Which one fitsA hypothetical festival blends the holidays of two groups into a new celebration neither had before. What is this blending called?
Syncretism: traits from two cultures blend into a new form that neither had before.
Review: 3.8 Effects of Diffusion
Unit 4: Political Patterns and Processes
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Topic 4.1 · Which one fitsA hypothetical people share one language and history, live mostly in one country, and almost all of that country's citizens belong to them. Is the country a nation-state or a multinational state?
A nation-state. In a multinational state the borders hold the homelands of two or more nations.
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Topic 4.1 · Which one fitsA hypothetical nation lives in two neighboring countries and has no country of its own. Is it a multistate nation, a stateless nation, or both?
Both. It is a multistate nation because its people live in two or more states, and a stateless nation because it has no state of its own.
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Topic 4.2 · Say it in contextWhy can self-determination pull against sovereignty?
Sovereignty is a state's final authority over its territory. Self-determination is a people's claim to choose its own government, which may mean separating from the state that rules it.
Review: 4.2 Political Processes
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Topic 4.2 · Which one fitsA central government hands some lawmaking power to a region where a distinct nation lives. What is this process called, and where can it lead?
Devolution, the movement of power from the central government to its regions. It can lead on to an independence movement.
Review: 4.2 Political Processes
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Topic 4.3 · Which one fitsA narrow strait that nearly all shipping to a hypothetical region must use is held by a small country. Which term describes the strait?
A choke point: whoever controls a narrow passage holds power well beyond its own size.
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Topic 4.3 · Which one fitsA hypothetical country is formally independent, but a stronger country's companies steer it through debt and ownership. Which term describes this?
Neocolonialism: control by economic means, through debt, trade and ownership, rather than direct rule.
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Topic 4.4 · Which one fitsA boundary is drawn as a straight line along a line of latitude across a hypothetical desert, with no regard for physical or cultural features. Which boundary type describes its shape?
A geometric boundary, drawn as a straight line or an arc. One boundary can fit more than one type, so it may also be antecedent if it was drawn before the area was settled.
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Topic 4.4 · Which one fitsA hypothetical empire drew a boundary through the homelands of several peoples with little regard for them. Which type is it? And a former boundary still visible in the landscape?
The first is a superimposed boundary, placed by an outside power. The second is a relict boundary, which no longer divides states but can still be seen.
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Topic 4.5 · Which one fitsPut four steps in order: administer, define, demarcate, delimit.
Define (describe in words), delimit (draw on a map), demarcate (mark on the ground), administer (run day to day).
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Topic 4.5 · Which one fitsUnder UNCLOS, how far from the baseline does a coastal state have sovereignty, and how far does it control the resources?
Sovereignty out to 12 nautical miles (the territorial sea), and control of resources out to 200 nautical miles (the exclusive economic zone). Beyond that are international waters.
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Topic 4.6 · Which one fitsA party controlling a hypothetical state legislature draws district lines to crowd its rivals' voters into a few districts. What are the practice and the technique called?
The practice is gerrymandering. Crowding a rival's voters into a few districts they win by huge margins is called packing.
Review: 4.6 Internal Boundaries
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Topic 4.6 · Say it in contextWhy are voting district lines redrawn after a census?
So each district holds about the same number of people after the count shows where population has changed.
Review: 4.6 Internal Boundaries
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Topic 4.7 · Which one fitsIn a hypothetical state, provinces have their own capitals and lawmaking bodies, and the constitution divides power between levels. Is it unitary or federal?
Federal. In a unitary state the central government holds the power and any provinces have only the powers it gives them.
Review: 4.7 Forms of Governance
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Topic 4.7 · Check the conditionsWhat question tells a unitary state apart from a federal state?
Ask where the regions' powers come from and whether the center can take them back on its own. If it can, the state is unitary.
Review: 4.7 Forms of Governance
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Topic 4.8 · Which one fitsA mountain range separates the people of one region from the capital of a hypothetical state, and they begin to see themselves as separate. Which devolutionary factor is this?
Division of groups by physical geography, where mountains, deserts, seas or long distances cut a region off.
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Topic 4.8 · Which one fitsWhich term describes a movement to claim territory in a neighboring state because people of the claiming side's nationality live there?
Irredentism.
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Topic 4.9 · Say it in contextWhy do states join supranational organizations when it means accepting limits on their own actions?
They gain things they cannot get alone: ways to handle problems that cross borders, economies of scale, free trade and mutual defense.
Review: 4.9 Challenges to Sovereignty
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Topic 4.9 · Which one fitsA hypothetical state breaks into three new sovereign countries. Is this devolution or disintegration?
Disintegration. Devolution moves some power to units inside the state. When a state disintegrates, new sovereign states take over part or all of its territory.
Review: 4.9 Challenges to Sovereignty
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Topic 4.10 · Which one fitsIs a shared national identity a centripetal or a centrifugal force, and what can it lead to?
Centripetal. It can lead to ethnonationalism, more equitable infrastructure development and greater cultural cohesion.
Review: 4.10 Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
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Topic 4.10 · Say it in contextA weak hypothetical government leaves some regions far behind. Name two consequences that centrifugal forces can lead to.
Centrifugal forces can lead to uneven development, a failed state that cannot control its territory or provide services, stateless nations and ethnic nationalist movements.
Review: 4.10 Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land-Use Patterns and Processes
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Topic 5.1 · Which one fitsWhich climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters, and what do farmers there grow?
A Mediterranean climate. Farmers grow drought-tolerant trees and vines, plant grain in autumn and irrigate in summer.
Review: 5.1 Introduction to Agriculture
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Topic 5.1 · Spot the mistakeA student says a very large farm must be intensive farming. What does intensity actually measure?
Intensity is inputs of labor and capital per unit of land, not farm size. Extensive farming, such as ranching, spreads little input across a large area.
Review: 5.1 Introduction to Agriculture
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Topic 5.2 · Which one fitsA hypothetical region has homes standing in a line along a river. Is it clustered, dispersed or linear settlement?
Linear settlement: homes line up along a river, road or canal.
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Topic 5.2 · Which one fitsA hypothetical country divides land into a grid of townships, each made of 36 square-mile sections. Which survey method is this, and how does long lot differ?
Township and range. Long lot divides land into long, narrow strips running back from a river, road or canal.
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Topic 5.3 · Say it in contextWhy did farming spread more easily from a hearth into places with a similar climate?
Crops and animals domesticated at the hearth were suited to its climate, so they could be carried by neighbors or migrating farmers to places where they would grow.
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Topic 5.3 · Which one fitsWhich term names the transfer of plants, animals, people and diseases between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres after European voyages began in the late 1400s?
The Columbian Exchange.
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Topic 5.4 · Which one fitsWhich farming change of the second agricultural revolution replaced a fallow field with a planned order of crops such as turnips and clover?
Crop rotation.
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Topic 5.4 · Say it in contextWhy did people move to towns as the second agricultural revolution raised yields?
Each farm worker could feed more people, so fewer farm workers were needed, and many rural people moved to towns for work in the new factories.
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Topic 5.5 · Which one fitsName the three marks of the Green Revolution.
High yielding seeds, more chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and engine-powered machines such as tractors, pumps and harvesters.
Review: 5.5 The Green Revolution
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Topic 5.5 · Say it in contextWhy might the Green Revolution have widened the gap between farmers in the same region?
The gains went mostly to farmers who could pay for the seeds, chemicals and machines, and machines cut farm jobs.
Review: 5.5 The Green Revolution
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Topic 5.6 · Which one fitsA hypothetical farm grows a crop mainly to sell for profit to buyers far away, not to feed the farm household. Is it subsistence or commercial agriculture?
Commercial agriculture: farming mainly to sell crops or animals for profit, often to distant buyers. Subsistence agriculture feeds the farmer's own household or community, with little of the harvest sold.
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Topic 5.6 · Say it in contextUnder bid-rent theory, why does intensive farming take land near a market while ranching takes cheap land far away?
Land costs most near the market, so uses that can pay high rents take it. Extensive uses that earn little per hectare take cheaper land far from the market.
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Topic 5.7 · Say it in contextWhy does a costly machine favor a large farm?
Economies of scale: a machine lowers the cost of each tonne only when its cost is spread over a large harvest.
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Topic 5.7 · Which one fitsA bag of flour passes from seed suppliers to a farm, a mill, a distributor and a store. What is the linked series of firms and places called?
A commodity chain.
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Topic 5.8 · Check the conditionsName the four assumptions of von Thünen's model.
One market city, a flat plain with the same soil and climate everywhere, one way to travel, and farmers who choose the land use that earns the most.
Review: 5.8 Von Thünen Model
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Topic 5.8 · Which one fitsFrom the market outward, what is the order of land uses in von Thünen's model?
Market gardening and dairy, then forest, then grains and field crops, then livestock ranching.
Review: 5.8 Von Thünen Model
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Topic 5.9 · Say it in contextWhy is a country that earns most of its export income from one crop vulnerable?
A price fall or a bad harvest hits the whole country. Measure it as the commodity's share of total export earnings.
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Topic 5.9 · Say it in contextA hypothetical country has a good harvest but cannot ship it abroad. What factors besides the harvest could explain this?
Political relationships, such as a tariff, missing infrastructure such as a road or port, and the patterns of world trade can matter as much as the harvest.
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Topic 5.10 · Which one fitsA hypothetical irrigated field in a dry climate becomes white with salt. What is the process called?
Soil salinization: salt builds up where irrigation water evaporates in a dry climate.
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Topic 5.10 · Which one fitsCutting trees and brush and burning them to clear a plot, which fertilizes the soil only briefly, is called what?
Slash and burn.
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Topic 5.11 · Which one fitsHouseholds pay a hypothetical farm before the season and receive a share of its harvest through the season. What is this arrangement?
Community-supported agriculture (CSA).
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Topic 5.11 · Which one fitsAn area has no full-service grocery store nearby and many residents lack a car. Is this food insecurity or a food desert?
A food desert: an area with poor access to affordable, nutritious food. Food insecurity describes a household that cannot count on enough food.
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Topic 5.12 · Say it in contextWhy does a census of household heads understate women's farm work?
A census of household heads records only the listed head, so it can miss much of the farm work women do. To compare places, use each group's share of the hours a task takes, from a time-use survey, rather than job titles.
Review: 5.12 Women in Agriculture
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Topic 5.12 · Say it in contextHow can commercial farming change the work women do?
It can cut women's field hours as machines take over, draw them into wage work in export horticulture, or leave them the food crops while men control the crop sold.
Review: 5.12 Women in Agriculture
Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes
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Topic 6.1 · Which one fitsA hypothetical city stands on a low hill above a bay, with fresh water from a nearby spring. Is that description its site or its situation?
Its site, the physical character of the place: landform and water. Situation is the city's location relative to other places, such as the routes and cities it is connected to.
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Topic 6.1 · Spot the mistakeA student says a country with 40 million urban residents is more urbanized than one with 5 million. What is wrong with the comparison?
Urbanization is a share of all people, a percent, not a count. A big country can have many urban residents and a small urban share.
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Topic 6.2 · Which one fitsWhich two urban size classes are defined by more than 10 million and more than 20 million people?
A megacity has more than 10 million people. A metacity has more than 20 million.
Review: 6.2 Cities Across the World
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Topic 6.2 · Which one fitsWhich urban form is a large cluster of offices, malls and hotels in the suburbs, often at a highway interchange?
An edge city.
Review: 6.2 Cities Across the World
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Topic 6.3 · Say it in contextWhat makes a city a world city, and is it its population?
Not population. A world city is at the top of the urban hierarchy for what it does: headquarters of transnational corporations, banks, producer services and nonstop links to other world cities.
Review: 6.3 Cities and Globalization
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Topic 6.3 · Which one fitsWhat does it mean when a city mediates a global process?
It stands between the global process and the places it reaches, passing it along and changing it on the way.
Review: 6.3 Cities and Globalization
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Topic 6.4 · Work it outA hypothetical country's largest city has 8,000,000 people. By the rank-size rule, how large should its fourth-ranked city be?
8,000,000 divided by 4 is 2,000,000 people.
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Topic 6.4 · Work it outUsing population times population divided by distance squared, which pair interacts more: two towns of 20,000 and 30,000, 10 km apart, or two towns of 20,000 and 30,000, 20 km apart?
The first pair. 20,000 times 30,000 divided by 100 is 6,000,000. The second pair is divided by 400, so 1,500,000. Closer pairs interact more.
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Topic 6.5 · Which one fitsWhich model draws a city as rings around the central business district, and which draws wedges running out along transportation routes?
The Burgess concentric-zone model draws rings. The Hoyt sector model draws wedges along transportation routes.
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Topic 6.5 · Which one fitsWhich model describes a whole metropolitan area, not just one city's neighborhoods, spread into many centers such as suburban business districts and edge cities linked by highways?
The galactic city model. The Harris and Ullman multiple-nuclei model also has several centers, but it describes the neighborhoods of one city rather than a whole metropolitan area.
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Topic 6.6 · Which one fitsRank detached houses on their own lots, townhouses and duplexes, and apartment buildings many floors tall by housing density.
Detached houses are low-density, townhouses and duplexes are medium-density, and tall apartment buildings are high-density.
Review: 6.6 Density and Land Use
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Topic 6.6 · Which one fitsBuilders put new homes on a vacant lot inside an already built-up area. What is this called, and what does it do to density?
Infilling. It raises density without adding land.
Review: 6.6 Density and Land Use
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Topic 6.7 · Say it in contextWhy do firms and housing cluster near transit stations, highway interchanges and ports?
Infrastructure gives access, and location near it shapes where firms, offices and housing cluster.
Review: 6.7 Infrastructure
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Topic 6.7 · Say it in contextTwo districts are on the same networks, but one has reliable water and transit while the other has broken systems. Which dimension of infrastructure differs?
Quality. Location says where the networks reach. Quality says whether they work reliably.
Review: 6.7 Infrastructure
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Topic 6.8 · Which one fitsA hypothetical city builds dense housing, shops and offices within a short walk of a transit station. What is this called?
Transportation-oriented development, also called transit-oriented development.
Review: 6.8 Urban Sustainability
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Topic 6.8 · Which one fitsA hypothetical city draws a band of farms and parks around itself where new subdivisions are not allowed. Which smart-growth tool is this?
A greenbelt.
Review: 6.8 Urban Sustainability
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Topic 6.9 · Which one fitsWhich source of urban data counts everyone in an area at set intervals, and which asks only a sample?
A census counts everyone. A survey asks a sample, a group chosen to stand for a larger population.
Review: 6.9 Urban Data
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Topic 6.9 · Say it in contextWhy use interviews along with numbers when studying a neighborhood change?
The numbers measure what changed and where, and the words help explain why it happened and what it means to the people living through it.
Review: 6.9 Urban Data
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Topic 6.10 · Which one fitsBanks mark whole hypothetical neighborhoods as too risky because of who lives there and refuse mortgages. What is this called?
Redlining.
Review: 6.10 Challenges of Urban Changes
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Topic 6.10 · Which one fitsHigher-income residents move into a run-down neighborhood, buildings are repaired and housing costs rise. What is this called?
Gentrification.
Review: 6.10 Challenges of Urban Changes
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Topic 6.11 · Which one fitsName two responses to urban sustainability challenges that deal with a contaminated site and with where a city may grow.
Remediation and redevelopment of brownfields, and urban growth boundaries.
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Topic 6.11 · Say it in contextA city draws an urban growth boundary, and building then jumps past it into the next town. Is the response working?
Not fully. Judge a response by its goal, by the evidence before and after, and by what it pushes somewhere else.
Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Development Patterns and Processes
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Topic 7.1 · Say it in contextWhy did early factories in a hypothetical Industrial Revolution cluster on coalfields and along cheap water routes?
Coal and iron ore decided where the first factories could run, and water routes carried heavy loads cheaply.
Review: 7.1 The Industrial Revolution
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Topic 7.1 · Say it in contextHow did industrialization contribute to colonialism and imperialism?
Investors in industry sought raw materials and new markets overseas.
Review: 7.1 The Industrial Revolution
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Topic 7.2 · Which one fitsIn which sector do a hypothetical country's farmers, miners and fishers work, and which sector makes goods from what they produce?
The primary sector takes resources from the earth. The secondary sector makes goods from them.
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Topic 7.2 · Check the conditionsUnder least cost theory, where is a factory placed when its product weighs less than its inputs, and when it weighs more?
Near its resources when the product weighs less than its inputs, and near the market when it weighs more.
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Topic 7.3 · Work it outA hypothetical country has a gross national income of 600 billion units and a population of 20 million. What is its GNI per capita?
600 billion divided by 20 million is 30,000 units per person.
Review: 7.3 Measures of Development
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Topic 7.3 · Spot the mistakeA country's average income is high. Why can that still hide how most people live?
An average hides an uneven income distribution and an informal economy that goes unrecorded. Social measures such as infant mortality and literacy show how people actually live.
Review: 7.3 Measures of Development
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Topic 7.4 · Say it in contextHow does women's work typically change as a country develops?
It moves from mostly unpaid farm and household work toward wage jobs in factories and then services, helped by schooling for girls and smaller families.
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Topic 7.4 · Which one fitsA small loan, made without collateral, helps a woman start a local business. What is such a loan called?
A microloan.
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Topic 7.5 · Which one fitsWhich five stages make up Rostow's model, and what do critics say it assumes?
Traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity and high mass consumption. Critics say it assumes one path for every country and leaves out the ties between countries.
Review: 7.5 Theories of Development
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Topic 7.5 · Which one fitsWhich theory says ties set up under colonial rule keep poor countries selling raw goods to richer ones that keep most of the profit?
Dependency theory.
Review: 7.5 Theories of Development
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Topic 7.6 · Say it in contextWhy would a hypothetical country that is better at making both cloth and grain still gain from trade?
Comparative advantage: it gives up less of other goods to make one of them, so it specializes in that good and trades for the rest.
Review: 7.6 Trade and the World Economy
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Topic 7.6 · Which one fitsWhich organization lends to governments in financial crisis with conditions, and which sets rules for trade and settles disputes?
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) lends with conditions. The World Trade Organization (WTO) sets trade rules and settles disputes.
Review: 7.6 Trade and the World Economy
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Topic 7.7 · Which one fitsA hypothetical company moves its call center to a country with lower costs. What is this called, and what can it cause in the home region?
Outsourcing. It can cut jobs and bring deindustrialization or economic restructuring in the home region.
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Topic 7.7 · Say it in contextA hypothetical new factory opens and local diners, shops and suppliers all gain jobs. Which effect is this?
The multiplier effect: a change in one economic activity spreads through the rest of a region's economy.
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Topic 7.8 · Which one fitsWhich kind of tourism is based in natural places, often threatened by development, and frequently helps protect them while providing local jobs?
Ecotourism.
Review: 7.8 Sustainable Development
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Topic 7.8 · Say it in contextHow are projects such as public transportation judged under the UN Sustainable Development Goals?
By the change they make, measured with indicators, such as greenhouse gases emitted per rider.
Review: 7.8 Sustainable Development